Monday, September 30, 2019

Reading Skills Essay

Reading daily, Reading deeply, Reading widely are the few important skills of reading from which we can enhance our understanding of passage, ameliorate our vocabulary, correct our grammatical mistakes, increase our thinking capacity and helps in improving or learning any part of a language. The more you read the one thing you realize the key to doing well in the examination, and the key to perform or present any task in a well equipped way. There are many techniques used in reading to get and understand whole idea or summary of the passage to improve reading. But few important skills of reading are given below to improve reading. 1. Styles of reading 2. Active reading 3. A tip for speeding up your active reading 4. Spotting authors’ navigation aids 5. Words and vocabulary [pic]1. Styles of reading There are three styles of reading which we use in different situations: Scanning: Scanning is what you do to find an answer to a specific question. You may run your eyes quickly down the page in a zigzag or winding S pattern. If you are looking for a name, you note capital letters. For a date, you look for numbers. Vocabulary words may be boldfaced or italicized. When you scan for information, you read only what is needed. It’s useful to scan parts of texts to see if they’re going to be useful to you: †¢ the introduction or preface of a book †¢ the first or last paragraphs of chapters †¢ the concluding chapter of a book. Skimming: for getting the gist of something Skimming is covering the chapter to get some of the main ideas and a general overview of the material. It is what you do first when reading a chapter assignment. You don’t read for details at this point. Here is how you skim a chapter: . To preview a passage before you read it in detail  · Read the first paragraph of the chapter line by line.  · Next, read all the bold print headings starting at the beginning.  · Read the first sentence of every paragraph.  · Study any pictures, graphs, charts, and maps.  · Finally, read the last paragraph of the chapter. As you skim, you could write down the main ideas and develop a chapter outline. Detailed reading: for extracting information accurately Where you read every word, and work to learn from the text. In this careful reading, you may find it helpful to skim first, to get a general idea, but then go back to read in detail. Use a dictionary to make sure you understand all the words used. [pic]2. Active reading When you’re reading for your course, you need to make sure you’re actively involved with the text. It’s a waste of your time to just passively read, the way you’d read a thriller on holiday. Always make notes to keep up your concentration and understanding. Here are four tips for active reading. Underlining and highlighting Pick out what you think are the most important parts of what you are reading. Do this with your own copy of texts or on photocopies, not with borrowed books. If you are a visual learner, you’ll find it helpful to use different colours to highlight different aspects of what you’re reading. Note key words Record the main headings as you read. Use one or two keywords for each point. When you don’t want to mark the text, keep a folder of notes you make while reading. Questions Before you start reading something like an article, a chapter or a whole book, prepare for your reading by noting down questions you want the material to answer. While you’re reading, note down questions which the author raises. Summaries Pause after you’ve read a section of text. Then: 1. put what you’ve read into your own words; 2. skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is and 3.fill in any gaps. [pic]3. A tip for speeding up your active reading You should learn a huge amount from your reading. If you read passively, without learning, you’re wasting your time. So train your mind to learn. Try the SQ3R technique. First developed by researchers at Ohio State University, SQ3R is a useful technique for absorbing written information. It helps you to create a good mental framework of a subject, into which you can fit the right facts. It helps you to set study goals and prompts you to use the review techniques that will help you to remember. The acronym SQ3R stands for the five sequential techniques you should use to read a book: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. Survey Gather the information you need to focus on the work and set goals: †¢ Read the title to help prepare for the subject †¢ Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks are the key points †¢ Notice the boldface headings to see what the structure is †¢ Notice any maps, graphs or charts. They are there for a purpose †¢ Notice the reading aids, italics, bold face, questions at the end of the chapter. They are all there to help you understand and remember. Question  Help your mind to engage and concentrate. Your mind is engaged in learning when it is actively looking for answers to questions. Make questions that can be answered during the reading of the material. This will give a purpose to your reading. Take a heading and turn it into a question. For example, if a heading in a chapter about Cell Division is in your biology text, make a question by turning the title around: â€Å"How does cell division occur? † or â€Å"How many steps are involved in cell division? † Read Read the first section with your questions in mind. Now you read the material trying to find answers to your questions. This is a careful reading, line by line. You may want to take notes or make flashcards. Recall As you read, look away from your book and notes and try to answer your questions. This checks your learning and helps put that information in your memory. After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from memory. If not, take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to.. Review To check your memory, scan portions of the material or your notes to verify your answers. Review the material and note the main points under each heading. This review step helps you retain the material. The SQ3R method is just one technique that can be used to retain information you collect while reading. Students learn in different ways. Therefore they should be aware of their learning styles. Knowing whether you are an Auditory (learn by hearing), Visual (learn by seeing) or Kinesthetic (hands-on) learner helps you to understand your best learning environment. The SQ3R technique of reading can help to enhance your reading skills no matter what your style is. [pic]4. Spotting authors’ navigation aids Learn to recognize sequence signals, for example: â€Å"Three advantages of†¦ † or â€Å"A number of methods are available†¦ † leads you to expect several points to follow. The first sentence of a paragraph will often indicate a sequence:† One important cause of†¦ † followed by â€Å"Another important factor†¦ † and so on, until â€Å"The final cause of†¦ † General points are often illustrated by particular examples, for example: General: Birds’ beaks are appropriately shaped for feeding. Particular: Sparrows and other seed-eating birds have short, stubby beaks; wrens and other insect eaters have thin pointed beaks; herons and other fish hunters have long, sharp beaks for spearing their prey. Whatever you are reading, be aware of the author’s background. It is important to recognize the bias given to writing by a writer’s political, religious, social background. Learn which newspapers and journals represent a particular standpoint [pic]5. Words and vocabulary When you’re a graduate people expect you to use a vocabulary which is wider than a school-leaver’s. To expand your vocabulary: Choose a large dictionary rather than one which is ‘compact’ or ‘concise’. You want one which is big enough to define words clearly and helpfully (around 1,500 pages is a good size). Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by just giving synonyms. A pocket dictionary might suggest: ‘impetuous = rash’. A more comprehensive dictionary will tell you that impetuous means ‘rushing with force and violence’, while another gives ‘liable to act without consideration’, and add to your understanding by giving the derivation ‘14th century, from late Latin impetuous = violent’. It will tell you that rash means ‘acting without due consideration or thought’, and is derived from Old High German rasc = hurried. So underlying these two similar words is the difference between violence and hurrying. There are over 600,000 words in the Oxford English Dictionary; most of them have different meanings, (only a small proportion is synonyms). Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by using very complicated language to define the term you’re looking up, leaving you struggling to understand half a dozen new words. Keep your dictionary at hand when you’re studying. Look up unfamiliar words and work to understand what they mean. Improve your vocabulary by reading widely. Reading skills in a precis form Comprehensions Reading comprehension is a basic skill that each college student must possess. Believe it or not, reading is a complex, accrued skill—not acquired overnight learning to read and comprehend takes practice. Comprehension involves obtaining information from written text. A reader who comprehends a text accurately understands what the writer intended to communicate. She understands the purpose and the main idea. Comprehension cannot be observed directly, but a reader who is able to retell, paraphrase or summarize a text demonstrates comprehension. Interpretation †¢ When a reader interprets a text, he is employing a critical thinking strategy. He uses evidence and clues from the text to draw conclusions and looks for larger or more universal principals in what he has read. Interpretation requires going beyond the initial impression of what he has read to develop a more complex and complete understanding. Analysis †¢ When a reader analyzes the text, she identifies the assumptions of the writer and examines the structure of the argument. She asks questions such as, â€Å"Does the evidence support the argument? † and â€Å"Does it support the conclusions the writer draws? † She is looking for evidence of a logical and/or consistent argument. Synthesis †¢ With synthesis, the skilled reader is able to show how a text develops or builds meaning. He sorts out and reconstructs ideas in a text to point out how they are interrelated. He compares and extends meaning from multiple sources. Evaluation †¢ Evaluation, determining the quality and effectiveness of a text, is the highest level of critical thinking associated with reading, according to Lesley Thompson, Senior Assessment and Accountability Program Associate at the Northwest Regional Education Laboratory. An effective reader evaluates the merit of the text by drawing on her own experience and knowledge and considering whether other sources provide evidence that agrees with or contradicts the writer’s argument.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Do popular men’s consumer magazines represent the modern woman of today fairly and accurately?

I am using two highly popular men's magazines Zoo and Loaded in this essay to show that nowadays modern woman are being perceived in the incorrect way. It is fair to say that those magazines are popular because Zoo sells 260,000 just on a weekly basis and Loaded has an average circulation of 237,000 monthly. Combined this has a total of 497,000 consumers who are regularly being shown the opposition to a fair or accurate representation of the modern woman. Firstly the masthead Zoo implies that the women in the magazines are as pathetic as wild animals in the zoo and they have just been put there for the benefit of male consumers to have access to watch without any restrictions. Now the masthead loaded suggests money is more of an importance to men than a woman is – basically saying women should be used and then erased from memory. Neither of these mastheads represent modern women accurately or fairly because a modern woman should be more intelligent and confident to deafened themselves in they are being referred to as wild animals in the zoo or worthless possessions. The feature photos on both magazines show women; sexually available, loose and seductive. Reason why i say this is in both feature photos the models have false expressions excessive make-up, heavily exaggerated breasts and revealing clothing. The connotations of all this is these women are slapper, they are easy, not very intelligent and do not value themselves because if they did they would not sell themselves in aid to an old mans boredom. These models are artificial and rely on their body parts to make a living. In the Loaded feature photo there are three people but only two of them – which happen to be female, are dressed inappropriately yet the male gets away with having to expose his body. It seems as if they have been dolled up just to be purchased by 50 cent who has then gone and posed one on each side like a pair of watches that he owns – they may as well have price tags. Even though in the Zoo feature photo there is only one model the still message is still being sent out it is quite difficult to comment on her clothing as she is wearing next to nothing but this highlights that she is sexually available. She is giving the sort of eye contact as if she is enchanted by the consumer and that she is property of their when they buy the magazine which would give off the message that she is sexually open. So again I say that the feature photos on both magazines are poor representations of modern women because modern women have high expectations so they dress more appropriately, smartly and would not feel the need to display vast amounts of flesh to look attractive they also want t be more natural and not plastic – for having to adjust the whole of their body just to take a picture. The puffs which are included in Zoo are terribly alarming. Ne of them reads, Britain's hottest college model disrobes. These kind of remarks make the public believe even younger girls who are underage are up for sex which is a total mistruth . the target audience which these magazines are aimed at is eighteen to thirty so i do not see why they should be interested in any school girl. Another puff says ‘celeb abbess back in uniform' it baffles me that the school uniform theme is so popular in men's consumer magazines this just undermines school girls and again supposes that underage girls are sexually available. Both of these puffs do not represent modern women accurately or fairly because a modern women should be more reserved, would be more sensible in securing her sex life and would not under mime her education in that way. Finally I would like to conclude this by saying that men's consumer magazines may not represent modern women accurately, yet they do represent them fairly. I have come to realise that the models with are on the feature photos are hard working women the job they do is not compulsory, so in some ways it is an achievement and a lot of other women would aspire to be in their position and see them as roll models. They independently make a living and are self reliant. I would also like to point out that these women are courageous because they have the confidence to dress and to exactly what they want knowing that they are going to be dishonoured by some people. People do not recognize it but these women are impressive representations of modern women.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Issues in Sme Development in Ghana and South Africa

International Research Journal of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 39 (2010)  © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 http://www. eurojournals. com/finance. htm Issues in SME Development in Ghana and South Africa Joshua Abor Department of Finance University of Ghana Business School, Legon Peter Quartey Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research University of Ghana, Legon Abstract This paper discusses the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development in developing countries with particular reference to Ghana and South Africa. SMEs in Ghana have been noted to provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana. They are also believed to contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. In the Republic of South Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the formal business entities are SMEs. They also contribute between 52 to 57% to GDP and provide about 61% to employment. Notwithstanding the recognition of the important roles SMEs play in these countries, their development is largely constrained by a number of factors, such as lack of access to appropriate technology; limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity, lack of management skills and training, and most importantly finance. The paper provides some relevant recommendations to policy makers, development agencies, entrepreneurs, and SME managers to ascertain the appropriate strategy to improve the SME sector in these countries. Keywords: SME Development, Ghana, South Africa 1. 0. Introduction There is growing recognition of the important role small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play in economic development. They are often described as efficient and prolific job creators, the seeds of big businesses and the fuel of national economic engines. Even in the developed industrial economies, it is the SME sector rather than the multinationals that is the largest employer of workers (Mullineux, 1997). Interest in the role of SMEs n the development process continues to be in the forefront of policy debates in most countries. Governments at all levels have undertaken initiatives to promote the growth of SMEs (Feeney and Riding, 1997). SME development can encourage the process of both inter and intra-regional decentralization; and, they may well become a countervailing force against the economic power of larger enterprises. More generally, the development of SMEs is seen as accelerating the achievement of wider economi c and socio-economic objectives, including poverty alleviation (Cook and Nixson, 2000). According to an OECD report, SMEs produce about 25% of OECD exports and 35% of Asia’s exports (OECD, 1997). International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) 219 SMEs represent over 90% of private business and contribute to more than 50% of employment and of GDP in most African countries (UNIDO, 1999). Small enterprises in Ghana are said to be a characteristic feature of the production landscape and have been noted to provide about 85% of manufacturing employment of Ghana (Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey, 2001). SMEs are also believed to contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and account for about 92% of businesses in Ghana. Similarly, in the Republic of South Africa, it is estimated that 91% of the formal business entities are Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises (SMMEs) (Hassbroeck, 1996; Berry et al. , 2002). They also contribute between 52 and 57% to GDP and provide about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002). SMEs therefore have a crucial role to play in stimulating growth, generating employment and contributing to poverty alleviation, given their economic weight in African countries. How do SMEs in Ghana compare with their counterparts in South Africa and what policy lessons can be drawn for both countries to enhance the contribution of the sector remains the focus of this paper. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section two reviews the various definitions of SMEs. Section three discusses the characteristics of SMEs in developing countries. Sections four and five examine the contributions of SMEs to economic development and the constraints to SME developments. The paper concludes in section six. 2. 0. What is an SME? The issue of what constitutes a small or medium enterprise is a major concern in the literature. Different authors have usually given different definitions to this category of business. SMEs have indeed not been spared with the definition problem that is usually associated with concepts which have many components. The definition of firms by size varies among researchers. Some attempt to use the capital assets while others use skill of labour and turnover level. Others define SMEs in terms of their legal status and method of production. Storey (1994) tries to sum up the danger of using size to define the status of a firm by stating that in some sectors all firms may be regarded as small, whilst in other sectors there are possibly no firms which are small. The Bolton Committee (1971) first formulated an â€Å"economic† and â€Å"statistical† definition of a small firm. Under the â€Å"economic† definition, a firm is said to be small if it meets the following three criteria: †¢ It has a relatively small share of their market place; †¢ It is managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; †¢ It is independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. Under the â€Å"statistical† definition, the Committee proposed the following criteria:: †¢ The size of the small firm sector and its contribution to GDP, employment, exports, etc. †¢ The extent to which the small firm sector’s economic contribution has changed over time; †¢ Applying the statistical definition in a cross-country comparison of the small firms’ economic contribution. The Bolton Committee applied different definitions of the small firm to different sectors. Whereas firms in manufacturing, construction and mining were defined in terms of number of employees (in which case, 200 or less qualified the firm to be a small firm), those in the retail, services, wholesale, etc. were defined in terms of monetary turnover (in which case the range is 50,000-200,000 British Pounds to be classified as small firm). Firms in the road transport industry are classified as small if they have 5 or fewer vehicles. There have been criticisms of the Bolton definitions. These centre mainly on the apparent inconsistencies between defining characteristics based on number of employees and those based on managerial approach. The European Commission (EC) defined SMEs largely in term of the number of employees as follows: †¢ firms with 0 to 9 employees – micro enterprises; 220 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) †¢ 10 to 99 employees – small enterprises; †¢ 100 to 499 employees – medium enterprises. Thus, the SME sector is comprised of enterprises (except agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing) which employ less than 500 workers. In effect, the EC definitions are based solely on employment rather than a multiplicity of criteria. Secondly, the use of 100 employees as the small firm’s upper limit is more appropriate, given the increase in productivity over the last two decades (Storey, 1994). Finally, the EC definition did not assume the SME group is homogenous; that is, the definition makes a distinction between micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises. However, the EC definition is too all-embracing to be applied to a number of countries. Researchers would have to use definitions for small firms which are more appropriate to their particular â€Å"target† group (an operational definition). It must be emphasized that debates on definitions turn out to be sterile, unless size is a factor which influences performance. For instance, the relationship between size and performance matters when assessing the impact of a credit programme on a target group (Storey, 1994). Weston and Copeland (1998) hold that definitions of size of enterprises suffer from a lack of universal applicability. In their view, this is because enterprises may be conceived of in varying terms. Size has been defined in different contexts, in terms of the number of employees, annual turnover, industry of enterprise, ownership of enterprise, and value of fixed assets. Van der Wijst (1989) considers small and medium businesses as privately held firms with 1 – 9 and 10 – 99 people employed, respectively. Jordan et al (1998) define SMEs as firms with fewer than 100 employees and less than â‚ ¬15 million turnover. Michaelas et al (1999) consider small independent private limited companies with fewer than 200 employees and Lopez and Aybar (2000) considered companies with sales below â‚ ¬15 million as small. According to the British Department of Trade and Industry, the best description of a small firm remains that used by the Bolton Committee in its 1971 Report on Small Firms. This stated that a small firm is an independent business, managed by its owner or part-owners and having a small market share (Department of Trade and Industry, 2001). The UNIDO also defines SMEs in terms of number of employees by giving different classifications for industrialized and developing countries (see Elaian, 1996). The definition for industrialized countries is given as follows: †¢ Large – firms with 500 or more workers; †¢ Medium – firms with 100-499 workers; †¢ Small – firms with 99 or less workers. The classification given for developing countries is as follows: †¢ Large – firms with 100 or more workers; †¢ Medium – firms with 20-99 workers; †¢ Small – firms with 5-19 workers; †¢ Micro – firms with less than 5 workers. It is clear from the various definitions that there is not a general consensus over what constitutes an SME. Definitions vary across industries and also across countries. It is important now to examine definitions of SMEs given in the context of Ghana and South Africa. 2. 1. The Ghanaian Situation There have been various definitions given for small-scale enterprises in Ghana but the most commonly used criterion is the number of employees of the enterprise (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut off points used by the various official sources. In its Industrial Statistics, the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) considers firms with fewer than 10 employees as small-scale enterprises and their counterparts with more than 10 employees as medium and large-sized enterprises. Ironically, the GSS in its national accounts considered companies with up to 9 employees as SMEs (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). The value of fixed assets in the firm has also been used as an alternative criterion for defining SMEs. However, the National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana applies both the International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) 221 â€Å"fixed asset and number of employees† criteria. It defines a small-scale enterprise as a firm with not more than 9 workers, and has plant and machinery (excluding land, buildings and vehicles) not exceeding 10 million Ghanaian cedis. The Ghana Enterprise Development Commission (GEDC), on the other hand, uses a 10 million Ghanaian cedis upper limit definition for plant and machinery. It is important to caution that the process of valuing fixed assets poses a problem. Secondly, the continuous depreciation of the local currency as against major trading currencies often makes such definitions outdated (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). In defining small-scale enterprises in Ghana, Steel and Webster (1991), and Osei et al (1993) used an employment cut-off point of 30 employees. Osei et al (1993), however, classified small-scale enterprises into three categories. These are: (i) micro – employing less than 6 people; (ii) very small employing 6-9 people; (iii) small – between 10 and 29 employees. A more recent definition is the one given by the Regional Project on Enterprise Development Ghana manufacturing survey paper. The survey report classified firms into: (i) micro enterprise, less than 5 employees; (ii) small enterprise, 5 29 employees; (iii) medium enterprise, 30 – 99 employees; (iv) large enterprise, 100 and more employees (see Teal, 2002). 2. 2. The South African Situation The most widely used framework in South Africa is the definition of the National Small Business Act 102 of 1996, which defines five categories of businesses in South Africa. The definition uses the number of employees (the most common mode of definition) per enterprise size category combined with the annual turnover categories, the gross assets excluding fixed property. The definitions for the various enterprise categories are given as follows: †¢ Survivalist enterprise: The income generated is less than the minimum income standard or the poverty line. This category is considered pre-entrepreneurial, and includes hawkers, vendors and subsistence farmers. (In practice, survivalist enterprises are often categorised as part of the micro-enterprise sector). Micro enterprise: The turnover is less than the VAT registration limit (that is, R150 000 per year). These enterprises usually lack formality in terms of registration. They include, for example, spaza shops, minibus taxis and household industries. They employ no more than 5 people. †¢ Very small enterprise: These are enterprises employing fewer than 10 paid employees, except mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors, in which the figure is 20 employees. These enterprises operate in the formal market and have access to technology. Small enterprise: The upper limit is 50 employees. Small enterprises are generally more established than very small enterprises and exhibit more complex business practices. †¢ Medium enterprise: The maximum number of employees is 100, or 200 for the mining, electricity, manufacturing and construction sectors. These enterprises are often characterised by the decentralisation of power to an additional management layer. The National Small Business Act’s definitions of the different categories of business may be summarised as set out in Table 1 below. 222 Table 1: International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) Definitions of SMMEs given in the National Small Business Act Number of Employees Fewer than 100 to 200, depending on industry Fewer than 50 Annual Turnover (in South African rand) Less than R4 million to R50 million, depending upon industry Less than R2 million to R25 million, depending on industry Less than R200 000 to R500 000, depending on industry Less than R150 000 Gross Assets, Excluding Fixed Property Less than R2 million to R18 million, depending on industry Less than R2 million to R4. million, depending on industry Less than R150 000 to R500 000, depending on Industry Less than R100 000 Enterprise Size Medium Small Fewer than 10 to 20, depending on industry Micro Fewer than 5 Source: Falkena et al. (2001) Very Small From the above, two key contrast can be drawn between the definitions of SMEs in Ghana and their counterparts in South Africa. First, Act 102 of 1996 defines SMEs in South Africa wh ereas there is no such legislation in Ghana. Secondly, the cut off points for the various SME size categories in South Africa are much higher than that of Ghana. This may be a result of the fact that South Africa has a much higher income levels than Ghana. 3. 0. Characteristics of SMEs in Developing Countries Fisher and Reuber (2000) enumerate a number of characteristics of SMEs in developing countries under the broad headings: labour characteristics, sectors of activity, gender of owner and efficiency. Given that most SMEs are one-person businesses, the largest employment category is working proprietors. This group makes up more than half the SME workforce in most developing countries; their families, who tend to be unpaid but active in the enterprise, make up roughly another quarter. The remaining portion of the workforce is split between hired workers and trainees or apprentices. SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). In terms of activity, they are mostly engaged in retailing, trading, or manufacturing (Fisher and Reuber, 2000). While it is a common perception that the majority of SMEs will fall into the first category, the proportion of SME activity that takes place in the retail sector varies considerably between countries, and between rural and urban regions within countries. Retailing is mostly found in urban regions, while manufacturing can be found in either rural or urban centres. However, the extent of involvement of a country in manufacturing will depend on a number of factors, including, availability of raw materials, taste and consumption patterns of domestic consumers, and the level of development of the export markets. In Ghana, SMEs can be categorized into urban and rural enterprises. The former can be subdivided into â€Å"organized† and â€Å"unorganized† enterprises. The organized ones mostly have paid employees with a registered office, whereas the unorganized category is mainly made up of artisans who work in open spaces, temporary wooden structures, or at home, and employ few or in some cases no salaried workers (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). They rely mostly on family members or apprentices. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups, individual artisans, women engaged in food production from local crops. The major activities within this sector include:- soap and detergents, fabrics, clothing and tailoring, textile and leather, village blacksmiths, tin-smithing, ceramics, timber and mining, bricks and cement, beverages, food processing, bakeries, wood furniture, electronic assembly, agro processing, chemical-based products and mechanics (Osei et al. , 1993; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Majority of SMEs are female-owned businesses, which more often than not are home-based compared to those owned by males; they are operated from home and are mostly not considered in official statistics. This clearly affects their chances of gaining access to financing schemes, since such International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) 223 programmes are designed without sufficient consideration of the needs of businesses owned by females. These female entrepreneurs often get the impression that they are not capable of taking advantage of these credit schemes, because the administrative costs associated with the schemes often outweigh the benefits. Prior empirical studies in Ghana have shown that female-owned SMEs often have difficulty accessing finance. Females are mostly involved in sole-proprietorship businesses which are mainly microenterprises and as such may lack the necessary collateral to qualify for loans (Aryeetey et al, 1994; Abor and Biekpe, 2006). Measures of enterprise efficiency (e. g. labour productivity or total factor productivity) vary greatly both within and across industries. Firm size may be associated with some other factors that are correlated with efficiency, such as managerial skill and technology, and the effects of the policy environment. Most studies in developing countries indicate that the smallest firms are the least efficient, and there is some evidence that both small and large firms are relatively inefficient compared to medium-scale enterprises (Little et al. , 1987). It is often argued that SMEs are more innovative than larger firms. Many small firms bring innovations to the market place, but the contribution of innovations to productivity often takes time, and larger firms may have more resources to adopt and implement them (Acs et al. , 1999). 4. 0. Contributions of SMEs to Economic Development There is a general consensus that the performance of SMEs is important for both economic and social development of developing countries. From the economic perspective, SMEs provide a number of benefits (Advani, 1997). SMEs have been noted to be one of the major areas of concern to many policy makers in an attempt to accelerate the rate of growth in low-income countries. These enterprises have been recognized as the engines through which the growth objectives of developing countries can be achieved. They are potential sources of employment and income in many developing countries. SMEs seem to have advantages over their large-scale competitors in that they are able to adapt more easily to market conditions, given their broadly skilled technologies. They are able to withstand adverse economic conditions because of their flexible nature (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs are more labour intensive than larger firms and therefore have lower capital costs associated with job creation (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Liedholm and Mead, 1987; Schmitz, 1995). They perform useful roles in ensuring income stability, growth and employment. Since SMEs are labour intensive, they are more likely to succeed in smaller urban centres and rural areas, where they can contribute to a more even distribution of economic activity in a region and can help to slow the flow of migration to large cities. Due to their regional dispersion and their labour intensity, it is argued, small-scale production units can promote a more equitable distribution of income than large firms. They also improve the efficiency of domestic markets and make productive use of scarce resources, thus facilitating long-term economic growth (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). SMEs contribute to a country’s national product by either manufacturing goods of value, or through the provision of services to both consumers and/or other enterprises. This encompasses the provision of products and, to a lesser extent, services to foreign clients, thereby contributing to overall export performance. In Ghana and South Africa, SMEs represent a vast portion of businesses. They represent about 92% of Ghanaian businesses and contribute about 70% to Ghana’s GDP and over 80% to employment. SMEs also account for about 91% of the formal business entities in South Africa, contributing between 52% and 57% of GDP and providing about 61% of employment (CSS, 1998; Ntsika, 1999; Gumede, 2000; Berry et al. , 2002). From an economic perspective, however, enterprises are not just suppliers, but also consumers; this plays an important role if they are able to position themselves in a market with purchasing power: their demand for industrial or consumer goods will stimulate the activity of their suppliers, just as their own activity is stimulated by the demands of their clients. Demand in the form of investment plays a dual role, both from a demand-side (with regard to the suppliers of industrial goods) and on the supplyside (through the potential for new production arising from upgraded equipment). In addition, demand 224 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) is important to the income-generation potential of SMEs and their ability to stimulate the demand for both consumer and capital goods (Berry et al. , 2002). 5. 0. General Constraints to SME Development Despite the potential role of SMEs to accelerated growth and job creation in developing countries, a number of bottlenecks affect their ability to realize their full potential. SME development is hampered by a number of factors, including finance, lack of managerial skills, equipment and technology, regulatory issues, and access to international markets (Anheier and Seibel, 1987; Steel and Webster, 1991; Aryeetey et al, 1994; Gockel and Akoena, 2002). The lack of managerial know-how places significant constraints on SME development. Even though SMEs tend to attract motivated managers, they can hardly compete with larger firms. The scarcity of management talent, prevalent in most countries in the region, has a magnified impact on SMEs. The lack of support services or their relatively higher unit cost can hamper SMEs’ efforts to improve their management, because consulting firms are often not equipped with appropriate cost-effective management solutions for SMEs. Besides, despite the numerous institutions providing training and advisory services, there is still a skills gap in the SME sector as a whole (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). This is because entrepreneurs cannot afford the high cost of training and advisory services while others do not see the need to upgrade their skills due to complacency. In terms of technology, SMEs often have difficulties in gaining access to appropriate technologies and information on available techniques (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). In most cases, SMEs utilize foreign technology with a scarce percentage of shared ownership or leasing. They usually acquire foreign licenses, because local patents are difficult to obtain. Regulatory constraints also pose serious challenges to SME development and although wideranging structural reforms have led to some improvements, prospects for enterprise development remain to be addressed at the firm-level. The high start-up costs for firms, including licensing and registration requirements, can impose excessive and unnecessary burdens on SMEs. The high cost of settling legal claims, and excessive delays in court proceedings adversely affect SME operations. In the case of Ghana, the cumbersome procedure for registering and commencing business are key issues often cited. The World Bank Doing Business Report (2006) indicated that it takes 127 days to deal with licensing issues and there are 16 procedures involved in licensing a business in Ghana. It takes longer (176 days) in South Africa and there were 18 procedures involved in dealing with licensing issues. Meanwhile, the absence of antitrust legislation favours larger firms, while the lack of protection for property rights limits SMEs’ access to foreign technologies (Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). Previously insulated from international competition, many SMEs are now faced with greater external competition and the need to expand market share. However, their limited international marketing experience, poor quality control and product standardisation, and little access to international partners, continue to impede SMEs’ expansion into international markets (Aryeetey et al. , 1994). They also lack the necessary information about foreign markets. One important problem that SMEs often face is access to capital (Lader, 1996). Lack of adequate financial resources places significant constraints on SME development. Cook and Nixson (2000) observe that, notwithstanding the recognition of the role of SMEs in the development process in many developing countries, SMEs development is always constrained by the limited availability of financial resources to meet a variety of operational and investment needs. A World Bank study found that about 90% of small enterprises surveyed stated that credit was a major constraint to new investment (Parker et al. , 1995). Levy (1993) also found that there is limited access to financial resources available to smaller enterprises compared to larger organisations and the consequences for their growth and development. The role of finance has been viewed as a critical element for the development of SMEs (Cook and Nixson, 2000). A large portion of the SME sector does not have access to adequate and appropriate forms of credit and equity, or indeed to financial services more generally (Parker et al. , 1995). In competing for the corporate market, formal financial institutions have structured their products to serve the needs of large corporates. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) 225 A cursory analysis of survey and research results of SMEs in South Africa, for instance, reveals common reactions from SME owners interviewed. When asked what they perceive as constraints in their businesses and especially in establishing or expanding their businesses, they answered that access to funds is a major constraint. This is reflected in perception questions answered by SME owners in many surveys (see BEES, 1995; Graham and Quattara, 1996; Rwingema and Karungu, 1999). This situation is not different in the case of Ghana (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey, 1998; Bigsten et al. , 2000, Abor and Biekpe 2006, 2007; Quartey, 2002). A priori, it might seem surprising that finance should be so important. Requirements such as identifying a product and a market, acquiring any necessary property rights or licenses, and keeping proper records are all in some sense more fundamental to running a small enterprise than is finance (Green et al. , 2002). Some studies have consequently shown that a large number of small enterprises fail because of non-financial reasons. Other constraints SMEs face include: lack of access to appropriate technology; the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training (see Sowa et al. , 1992; Aryeetey et al. , 1994; Parker et al. , 1995; Kayanula and Quartey, 2000). However, potential providers of finance, whether formal or informal, are unlikely to commit funds to a business which they view as not being on a sound footing, irrespective of the exact nature of the unsoundness. Lack of funds may be the immediate reason for a business failing to start or to progress, even when the more fundamental reason lies elsewhere. Finance is said to be the â€Å"glue† that holds together all the diverse aspects involved in small business start-up and development (Green et al. , 2002). 6. 0. Conclusion This paper has reviewed various definitions of SMEs and also discussed the characteristics, contributions of SMEs to economic development, and the constraints to SME development. In reviewing the definitions of SMEs, it was concluded that there is no single, universal, uniformly acceptable definition of SMEs. Several measures or indicators have been used to define the SME sector. The most commonly used is the number of employees of the enterprise. However, in applying this definition, confusion often arises in respect of the arbitrariness and cut-off points used by various official sources. The definitions of SMEs within the context of Ghana and South Africa were also examined, given that this paper focuses on these two countries. SMEs often fall into two categories, that is, urban and rural enterprises. The former can be sub-divided into â€Å"organized† and â€Å"unorganized† enterprises. The organized groups have registered offices and paid workers, whilst the unorganized ones are mainly made up of artisans. Rural enterprises are largely made up of family groups and individual artisans. The activities in the SME sector range from pottery and ceramics to manufacturing of spare parts and electronic assembly. SMEs in Ghana and South Africa have a lot of similarities in terms of their characteristics as well as the vital role they play in the two economies. However, they differ in terms of size and regulation. For instance, the cut off point for the various categories of SMEs in Ghana are much lower than they pertain in South Africa. Secondly, whereas a national legislation defines an SME in South Africa, no such Act exist in Ghana. The study also observed that SMEs constitute a vital element of the development process, and their contributions in terms of production, employment and income in developing countries is widely recognized. Hence, interest in the role of SMEs in the development process continues to be high on the agenda of policy makers in the two countries. Notwithstanding the recognition, the development of SMEs is always constrained by a number of factors such as, lack of access to appropriate technology, limited access to international markets, the existence of laws, regulations and rules that impede the development of the sector; weak institutional capacity and lack of management skills and training. However, access to finance remains the greatest concern for the majority of SMEs. This study suggests that, to improve access to credit to SMEs, entrepreneurs should be encouraged to form cooperatives since financial institutions believe peer pressure often reduces the risk 26 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) of default, Secondly, the government through tax incentives can encourage certain training institutions and NGOs to provide training to entrepreneurs on simple record keeping and managerial know-how. Also, a national legislation in Ghana to define what constitutes an SME and their leg al as well as tax obligations will help to integrate a number of informal enterprises into the formal framework. This should be complemented with steps to minimize the legal procedures involved in doing business in both countries. It is also suggested that technology transfer through simple, inexpensive and adaptable technology should be promoted to enhance the productivity of SMEs. References [1] [2] Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å"Small Business Financing Initiatives in Ghana†, Problems and Perspectives in Management, 4(3), pp. 69-77. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2006. â€Å"SMEs’ Access to Debt Finance: A Comparison of Male-Owned and Female-Owned Businesses in Ghana†, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 7(2), pp. 105-112. Abor, J. and N. Biekpe, 2007. Small Business Reliance on Bank Financing in Ghana†, Emerging Market Finance & Trade, 43(4), pp. 93 – 102. Acs, Z. , R. Morck, and B. Young, 1999. â€Å"Productivity Growth and Size Distribution†, in Acs, Z. , Carlsson, B. and Karlsson, C. (eds. ), Entrepreneurship, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Macroeconomy, Cambridge University Press. Advani, A. 1997. â€Å"Industrial Clusters: A Sup port System for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises†, Private Sector Development, World Bank Occasional Paper No. 32, World Bank, Washigton, DC. Anheier, H. K. and H. D. Seibel, 1987. Small Scale Industries and Economic Development in Ghana†, Business Behaviour and Strategies in Informal Sector Economies, Verlag Breitenbech, Saarbruckh, Germany. Aryeetey, E. 1998. â€Å"Informal Finance for Private Sector Development in Africa†, Economic Research Papers No. 41, The African Development Bank, Abidjan. Aryeetey, E. 2001. â€Å"Priority Research Issues Relating to Regulation and Competition in Ghana†, Centre on Regulation and Competition Working Paper Series, University of Manchester, Manchester. Aryeetey, E. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, T. Duggleby, H. Hettige, and W. F. Steel, 1994. â€Å"Supply and Demand for Finance of Small Scale Enterprises in Ghana†, Discussion Paper No. 251, World Bank, Washington, DC. BEES, 1995. Guide to the Preliminary Results of the ERU / BEES SME Survey. Berry, A. , M. von Blottnitz, R. Cassim, A. Kesper, B. Rajaratnam, and D. E. van Seventer, 2002. â€Å"The Economics of SMMEs in South Africa†, Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies, Johannesburg, South Africa. Bigsten, A. , P. Collier, S. Dercon, M. Fafchamps, B. Guthier, J. W. Gunning, M. Soderbom, A. Oduro, R. Oostendorp, C. Patillo, F. Teal, A. Zeufack, 2000. Credit Constraints in Manufacturing Enterprises in Africa†, Working Paper WPS/2000. Centre for the study of African Economies, Oxford University, Oxford. Bolton, J. E. 1971. â€Å"Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Small Firms†, HMSO, London. Cook, P. and F. Nixson, 2000. â€Å"Finance and Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise Development†, IDPM, University of Manchester, Finance and Development Research Programme Working Paper Series, Paper No 14. CSS, 1998. â€Å"Employment and Unemployment in South Africa 1994-1997†, South Africa. Department of Trade and Industry, 2001. Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) – Definitions, http://www. dti. gov. uk/SME4/define. htm. Elaian, K. 1996. Employment Implications of Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Evidence from Jordan, Science, Technology and Development, 14(1), pp. 80-101. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) [18] 227 [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] Falkena, H. , I. Abedian, M. Blottnitz, C. Coovadia, G. Davel, J. Madungandaba, E. Masilela, and S. Rees, S. , 2001. â€Å"SMEs’ Access to Finance in South Africa, A Supply-Side Regulatory Review†, The Task Group of the policy Board for Financial Services and Regulation, www. finance. gov. za/documents/smes. Feeney, L. S. and A. L. Riding, 1997. Business Owners’ Fundamental Tradeoff: Finance and the Vicious Circle of Growth and Control, Canadian Business Owner, November. Fisher, E. and R. Reuber, 2000. â€Å"Industrial Clusters and SME Promotion in Developing Countries†, Commonwealth Trade and Enterprise Paper No. 3. Gockel, A. G. and S. K. Akoena, 2002. Financial Intermediation for the Poor: Credit Demand by Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Ghana. A Further Assignment for Financial Sector Policy? †, IFLIP Research Paper 02-6, International Labour Organisation. Graham, D. and K. Quattara, 1996. Report on Rural Finance in Two Provinces in South Africa, Prepared for the Development Bank of Southern Africa . Green, C. J. , P. Kimuyu, R. Manos, and V. Murinde, 2002. â€Å"How do Small Firms in Developing Countries Raise Capital? Evidence from a Large-Scale Survey of Kenyan Micro and Small Scale Enterprises†, Economic Research Paper No. 2/6, Centre for International, Financial and Economics Research, Department of Economics, Loughborough University. Gumede, V. 2000. â€Å"Growth and Exporting of Small and Medium Enterprises in South Africa, Some Thoughts on Policy and Scope for Further Research†, Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies, South Africa. Hassbroeck, D. 1996. â€Å"Entrepreneurship Training for the Informal Sector in South Africa, in Educating Entrepreneurs in Modernising Economies†, Aldershot, Hants: Avebury. Jordan, J. , J. Lowe, and P. Taylor, 1998. â€Å"Strategy and Financial Policy in U. K. Small Firms†, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 25(1/2), pp. –27. Kayanula, D. and P. Quartey, 2000. â€Å"The Policy Environment for Pr omoting Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Ghana and Malawi†, Finance and Development Research Programme, Working Paper Series, Paper No 15, IDPM, University of Manchester. Lader, P. 1996. â€Å"The Public/Private Partnership†, Springs Spring, 35(2), pp. 41-44. Levy, B. , A. Berry, and J. Nugent, 1999. â€Å"Supporting the Export Activities of Small and Medium Enterprise (SME)†, in Levy, B. , Berry, A. and Nugent, J. B. (eds. ), Fulfilling the Export Potential of Small and medium Firms, Boston, MA, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Liedholm, C. and D. Mead, 1987. Small Scale Industries in Developing Countries: Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications†, International Development Paper No. 9, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA. Little, I. M. , D. Mazumdar, and J. M. Page, 1987. â€Å"Small Manufacturing Enterprises: A Comparative Analysis of India and Other Economies†, New York, Oxford University Press . Lopez, G. J. and A. C. Aybar, 2000. â€Å"An Empirical Approach to the Financial Behaviour of Small and Medium Sized Companies†, Small Business Economics, 14, pp. 55-63. Michaelas, N. , F. Chittenden, and P. Poutziouris, 1999. Financial Policy and Capital Structure Choice in U. K. SMEs: Empirical Evidence from Company Panel Data†, Small Business Economics, 12, 113-130. Millinuex, A. W. 1997. â€Å"The Funding of Non-Financial Corporations (NFCs) in the EU (19711993): Evidence of Convergence†, Mimeo, Department of Economics, University of Birmingham. Ntsika, 1999. â€Å"State of Small Business in South Africa†, SARB Quarterly Bulletins; and Stats SA Releases, South Africa. OECD, 1997. Globalisation and Small and Medium Enterprises, Synthesis Report, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Osei, B. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and N. K. Sowa, 1993. Impact of Structural Adjustment on Small-Scale Enterprises in Ghana†, in Helmsing, A. H . J. and Kolstee, T. H. 228 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 39 (2010) (eds. ), Structural Adjustment, Financial Policy and Assistance Programmes in Africa, IT Publications, London. Parker, R. , R. Riopelle, and W. Steel, 1995. â€Å"Small Enterprises Adjusting to Liberalisation in Five African Countries†, World Bank Discussion Paper, No 271, African Technical Department Series, The World Bank, Washington DC. Quartey, P. 2002. â€Å"Financing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in Ghana†, Journal of African Business, 4, pp. 7-56. Rwingema, H. and P. Karungu, 1999. â€Å"SMME Development in Johannesburg’s Southern Metropolitan Local Council: An Assessment† Development Southern Africa 16(1). Schmitz, H. 1995. â€Å"Collective Efficiency: Growth Path for Small Scale Industry†, The Journal of Development Studies, 31(4), pp. 529-566. Sowa, N. K. , A. Baah-Nuakoh, K. A. Tutu, and B. Osei, 1992. â€Å"Small Enterprise and Adjustment, The Impact of Ghana’s Economic Recovery Programme on Small-Scale Industrial Enterprises†, Research Reports, Overseas Development Institute, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7JD. Steel, W. F. and L. M. Webster, 1991. â€Å"Small Enterprises in Ghana: Responses to Adjustment Industry†, Series Paper, No. 33, The World Bank Industry and Energy Department, Washington DC. Storey, D. , 1994. â€Å"Understanding the Small Business Sector†, Routledge, London. Teal, F. , 2002. â€Å"Background Information On Use Of Dataset: Regional Project On Enterprise Development (RPED) Ghana Manufacturing Sector Survey Waves I-V (1992-98)†, Centre for the Study of African Economies, Institute of Economics and Statistics, University of Oxford, St. Cross Building, Manor Road, Oxford, OX1 3UL. UNIDO, 1983. The Potential for Resource-based Industrial Development in the Least Developed Countries’, No. 5 – Malawi. UNIDO, 1999. SMEs in Africa Survive against all Odds, http://www. unido. org/doc/view? document_id=3927&language_code=en. Van der Wijst, D. , 1989. â€Å"Financial Structure in Small Business. Theory, Tests and Applications†, Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, Vol. 320, New York: Springer-Verlag. Weston, J. F. and Copeland, T. E. , 1998. â€Å"Managerial Finance†, CBS College Publishing, New York. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49]

Friday, September 27, 2019

Increase in flights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Increase in flights - Essay Example DS-3 flew with 21 to 32 passengers (Hoyle and Knowles, 1998). By the time, DS-4 and DS-6 revolutionized the passenger flights and the power associated with them. Boeing and Airbus are two major companies that are providing the world with the passenger airplanes (Armstrong, 1993). The biggest passenger aeroplane is Airbus A-380. It is a double deck plane and made its first flight on 27 April 2005. The seating capacity for this plane is almost 853 for economy class or 525 people in a three-class arrangement. The airbus A-380 can reach the speed of almost 900km/hour or 0.85 mach (Cullingworth, 1997). History Fight history is full of experimentations and theories. The initialization in the field of flying is initiated by the Chinese. Chinese discovered kites round 400BC and people at that time thought that someday man could be able to fly in the air using kites or some other mechanism (Hoyle and Knowles, 1998). After that people, experimented big kites to fly in air but in vain. Chinese used these kites for fun and in their religious ceremonies. These kites are also used in weather testing. In 1480, Leonardo da Vinci proposed many theories about the flight and drew about 100 drawing to support his theories but his flight mechanism never came into reality (Hoyle and Knowles, 1998). In the year of 1783, Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier developed the first hot air balloon. The invention of hot air balloon opened new ways to develop an aircraft. About two centuries ago in 1804 a model of a real time glider is proposed by George Cayley (Armstrong, 1993). The model glider has fixed wings and a movable tail. This concept revolutionized the flight history. In 1853, George Cayley’s invented a glider, which was able to carry man. He named the glider ‘New Flyer’ and it took his footmen across Brompton Dale. In 1874, a piloted aeroplane was made by Felix du Temple, which ran down a ramp (Barrass and Madhavan, 1996). He named it ‘Hop’ and it is un able to take off using its own power. Clement Ader in 1890 created the first piloted aeroplane that is able to take off by using its own power. The name of this aeroplane is Eole. In 1893, first controlled flight was made by Otto Lilienthal (Cullingworth, 1997). He made a true controlled flight and glided up to 230 meters. Wright brothers made a sustained controlled flight in 1903 at Kitty Hawk (Barrass and Madhavan, 1996). Wright brothers made a remarkable contribution in the flight history. Douglas airplanes contributed much in the history of the aeroplanes but when Boeing entered in the market of passenger planes, it made a remarkable contribution in passenger and cargo aeroplanes (Armstrong, 1993). In 1947, Boeing came with new design in aircrafts and presented their first plane and names it Boeing 377 Strato Cruiser. It has four piston driven engines (Hoyle and Knowles, 1998). Modern flights are much more advanced and are able to carry hundreds of passengers and tons of cargo w ith them (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). Today airplanes have advanced turbo jet engines. Reasons for Increase in Flights Flight is the fastest mean of transport today. The speed of a plane depends on its engine. Today aircraft engines are such made that they can be able to carry tons of loads and maintain a high velocity. The property of an airplane that it can cover large distance in a little span of time makes it a major reason in the increase in flights (Tolley and Turton, 1995). It can save you

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Travelling As A Source Of Learning English Essay

Travelling As A Source Of Learning English - Essay Example English is an international medium for communication. On an international front, English plays an important role in binding contracts between governments of two countries (Riches and Curt-Christiansen). Therefore, it is deemed critical for professionals from several fields to develop English language. On the other side, in some Asian countries, English is considered as a status symbol. It is believed to be a communication medium of upper social class. Additionally, those individuals, who are not a native English speakers are believed to be excellent learners of this language because they attempt to increase their linguistics. This essay attempted to analyze the importance of traveling across various cultures in the development of advanced linguistics in youth. At the same time, I have been able to dwell on my strong skill of tongue because of my frequent international traveling experience. English is also considered as an international medium of communication. Therefore, used in fabricating various international contracts among nations. Hence, in the light of this argument, politicians should develop their English in order, to understand the embedded meanings of a legal document. On the other, as a student of English, I consider it as my duty to understand English better than anyone in the world does. However, to accomplish this goal, I am regularly reading ancient English literature in order to; understand the very roots of English. On the other hand, my teachers helped me, during my quest of learning English.

Beauty and the Beast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Beauty and the Beast - Essay Example Although there are many versions, this paper will compare and contrast Villeneuve version with that of Disney because of the characters used, setting and plotting. The versions are different in some aspects and at the same time similar. For instance, similarities and differences arises by focusing on the main characters in the story. In the Disney version, the Beast is selfish and whiny who revenged actions of others, such as the woman who refused sheltering . This is contrary to the Villeneuve version where the Beast is unselfish and the only wrong portrayed is refusing to marry his governess. For this reason, I see that the characters in the two versions are different in that one is punished for wrongdoing while the other falls victim of injustices. Similarly, I feel the two versions are different in the way they portray the main character, Belle. In the Disney version, she is the only child of the inventor and lives in France. People love her, and they always bust into songs in her praise. She was the beautiful girl in the village, but unaware of her beauty, making her develop an interest in books and adventuring rather than a housewife.Far rell (315) also supports this observation Contrarily, the Villeneuve versions portray Belle as the youngest daughter of the merchant who lives a luxurious life in the city.Okapina (10) also shares the same sentiments. From all these, one character has different meanings hence confusing the reader as portrayed in the two versions. Secondly, I feel the two versions are different on their expositions. For instance, Disney version names Belle’s father as Maurice and he successfully managed the wood chopping invention making him move to different towns with the hope of winning a prize in fair. However, he got lost on his way back in the woods before coming across the Beast’s castle. In Villeneuve version, the father was referred as the merchant who lost all his wealth because of fire and others taken to pay

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Consumer Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Consumer Behaviour - Essay Example term associated with a male individual who have a strong concern for his appearance, and spent time, money and attention to aesthetic details of his exterior. Such men always concerned about their appearances and will wear nice dresses and will adopt new trends in fashion in their life styles. Quiet often people misinterpret a person with metrosexual attributes as a gay guy; but in reality they have no relationship with such people. Consumerism is a culture spreading all over the world which deals with the relationship between personal happiness and purchasing material and its consumption. Consumer industry, especially the cosmetic industry is changing because of the evolution of metrosexuality. As per the earlier trends, men were least concerned about fashion and their appearances compared to women and the cosmetic industry focussed mainly on the female community earlier. But the changing trends among men’s fashion concepts forced the consumer industry to concentrate in men’s fashion segment also. The active participation of men along with women in the consumer market is a blessing for consumer industry. Men’s Calm Balm (A soothing balm for use after shaving or weather exposure), Men’s No shine (Daily moisturizer for oily to normal skin), Mens Revive Survive (For use throughout the day to revive the complexion), Men’s Scrub Up De Tox (Facial scrub for daily use), Men’s Morning Glory (Daily moisturizer for normal to dry skin) are some of the Dove’s famous skin care products for men. (Professional Skincare Products)  Ã‚  New Pro-age, Energy Glow, Sensitive Skin, Deep Moisture, Dove go fresh are some of the dove’s skin care products for women. (Dove –face care) Men’s Calm Balm is a very good product for men, which contains the healing properties of essential oils tea tree and lemon. It can sooth and heal skin irritation. It has rejuvenating properties of anti oxidant algae mineral nutrients. Moreover, it can protect the skin from UV radiations

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Perspective on marketings role within your organisation Essay - 1

Perspective on marketings role within your organisation - Essay Example Sales forecasts generated by the marketing department of the business will also be important in influencing budgets and allocation of human resources within the company. In addition, the marketing function also supports research and development function of the organization in coming up with products and services that meet the needs of the customers. Furthermore, the role of marketing as a function remains a critical aspect in understanding the core values of an organization and the attitudes of an organization towards the delivery of goods and services to its customers. In other words, marketing function plays a significant role in situating how the performance of an organization’s new product in the market, customer relationship practices, and financial base are perceived externally (Moorman & Rust, 1999). This is because it is a business area of an organization that most frequently interacts with customers and the public in general, and consequently, shapes the general perception of the public about the organization, its activities, and values. For instance, customers may see an organization as dynamic and innovative based on its promotional and advertising messages that focus on new products. In addition, a firm’s stated marketing objectives will inform customers and the public about the firm’s performan ce on customer satisfaction, market share, and /or

Monday, September 23, 2019

The Ethical Systems of Noddings and Bell Term Paper

The Ethical Systems of Noddings and Bell - Term Paper Example This in itself makes the argument that all women are nurturing, which is not necessarily true. Her ethics theory is based on this premise. To illustrate, she tells the story of Ceres, who loses her daughter, Proserpine, to Pluto, god of the underworld (373). Grief-stricken, Ceres is taken in by Celeus and finds a sick boy at his home. She cures him and gives him knowledge of agriculture: â€Å"the cared-for shall be blessed not with†¦power, but with the great gift of usefulness† (374). In telling of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac, Noddings posits a male system of responsibility to an abstract ideal, which is â€Å"absolute duty toward God† (375). Noddings system repudiates the ideals of an absolute deity and abstract principles in favor of an ethics based on â€Å"natural caring, that makes the ethical possible† (376). In terms of ethics, Noddings asserts that women are concrete thinkers, devoted to an ideal of â€Å"we-ness:†¦ She does not, in whatever personal agony, inflict death upon her child in devotion to either principle or abstract entity† (377). ... I believe the â€Å"have tons of the one-caring and the cared for†, which Noddings describes as â€Å"internal imperatives†(380) refer to the chains of obligation placed upon women. Even Noddings’ language internalizes the position of the oppressed. Bell’s system of ethics presupposes a paradigm. The feminist ethicist must first be aware of the larger society to which she belongs, and whose mores she has internalized, even if she is now questioning them. Class differences, racial and ethnic groups, â€Å"even different classes within those groups† as they relate to gender oppression must be included in an ethical system (18). The societal context of any moral/ethical analysis must be considered, or the analysis will be shallow (20). Bell’s definition of morality is â€Å"a set of prescriptions and prescriptions, a practical list of dos and don’ts† that govern behavior (19). To arrive at a system of feminist ethics, Bell examines different moralities and questions their origin, their place in the larger societal system, their possible inconsistencies and whether or not â€Å"one morality can be shown to be superior to any other† (19). Her ethical system is not synonymous with a common definition of morality. Bell’s paradigm includes the â€Å"reality of violence† routinely directed at women in society (21). This includes â€Å"sexual child abuse, rape, sexual harassment† as well as the legal system’s casual attitude in prosecuting the perpetrators(21). It also includes the persecution of the victim of violence when it occurs in the public sector. By characterizing such violence as a private matter, social institutions thus serve to condone it.  

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Union Membership Essay Example for Free

Union Membership Essay With great attention being placed on medication safety and reduction of healthcare costs, involvement of information technology in health care is increasing (Kuperman Gibson, 2003). Examples of this so-called patient care information systems are order entry systems, medical records systems, radiology information systems and patient information systems with Computerized Provider Order Entry, or Computer Physician Order Entry, (CPOE) receiving valuable attention (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). Thus, this paper will be focused on CPOE as an emerging health care technology. CPOE, as defined by (Campbvell et al. , 2006), is: †¦the process by which physicians or their surrogates (but not intermediaries) directly enter medical orders into a computer application (p. 547). With this transformation from handwriting orders into encoding them into the computer, CPOE is seen as an important platform for the enhancement of health care delivery (Gibson Kuperman, 2003). Gibson and Kuperman (2003) have noted the positive outcomes of CPOE in the following areas: a) preventive care measures; b) compliance with drug monitoring; c) laboratory test ordering; d) radiologic test ordering; e) medication error reduction; f) decrease length of hospital stay; g) time-saving communication with the healthcare team; h) standardization of practice; i) clinical decision support; and, j) storage of data for management, quality, and research monitoring. Thus, CPOE is seen as the ticket for the avoidance of underuse, misuse, and overuse of health care (Gibson Kuperman, 2003) with endorsements from the Leapfrog Group as being an important leap for health care quality (Gibson Kuperman, 2003). Yet, as in any other technology, the complexity, advanced features, and high demands of CPOE can lead to consequences that are unintentional (Campbell et al. , 2006). Though CPOE also bears positive and beneficial UC’s, the alarming negative consequences which affects the healthcare, especially that of nursing services, will be the focus of this study with the aim of presenting the adverse UC’s of using such an emerging health care technology. CPOE: NOT ALL GOOD Campbell and colleagues (2006) conducted a study that pointed out to 9 different unintended consequences of CPOE to healthcare. In decreasing frequency, these UC’s are: a) more/new work for clinicians; b) workflow issues; c) never ending system demands; d) paper persistence; e) changes in communication patterns and practices; f) negative emotions; g) new kinds of errors; h) changes in the power structure; and i) overdependence on technology (p. 549). (See table 1). Among these UC’s, others affect the medical professionals or the healthcare organizations only while some encompasses its effect on nursing services. Since this paper is focused on the UC’s that affect the clinical nursing care, focus is given on the following UC’s of CPOE: a) workflow issues; and, b) changes in communication patterns and practices. Workflow Issues Clinical workflows are complex thereby necessitating dynamism (Campbell et al. 2006). With traditional health care workflows, steps are more adaptable and include a variety of checks and balances, interventions and exceptions (Campbell et al. , 2006). These consist of several concurrent and asynchronous steps that could adjust, cease, or intervene in the processing of medical orders (Campbell et al. , 2006). CPOE, as evidenced by the study of Campbell et al. , (2006), abolish these multiple interdependent steps resulting in lesser procedure reviews and greater potential hardships. CPOE has clinical ordering processes that follow predictable steps where the doctor encodes and order, the system delivers it to the rightful destination, the order is processed, and the request is acted upon (Campbell et al. , 2006). But then, this rigid adaptation of hospital procedures is different from what occurs in the real setting (Campbell et al. , 2006). In actual practice, simultaneous actions on wide dimensions like assessing patients, carrying out orders, and responding to emergencies, require flexibility by healthcare providers especially that of nurses (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). As Campbell et al. (2006) note, nurses are with good experiences are able to blend orders as necessary. Ash, Berg, and Coiera (2004) agrees to this by stating that in everyday health care work, experienced nurses are more often knowledgeable about medications than many other junior physicians who populate the ward. With the strict implementation of rules by CPOE, this flexibility of nurses especially in areas of emergency care and â€Å"stat† actions are disregarded and are not permitted (Campbell et al. , 2006). This is in favor of quality and management control, but has great risks for health care provision (Campbell et al. , 2006). This shows CPOE’s failure to support individual role players and work-shifting in the health care area that may lead to ineffective work activity synchronizations (Capmbell et al. , 2006). As such, this lack of support for the highly flexible and fluid ways of real life clinical workflow is burdensome for medical and nursing professionals (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). Changes in Communication Patterns and Practices Health care professionals are connected by sharing professional opinions and needs through noting progress and conducting referrals (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). CPOE alters this traditional pattern by replacing previously interpersonal conversations regarding provision of care with a computer system that creates problems in the clinical care work (Campbell et al. , 2006). By communicating only through the computer, physicians are provided with an â€Å"illusion of communication† by believing that entry of an order into the system guarantees that proper people will receive it and take appropriate actions (Campbell et al. , 2006). This places the blame on nurses for non-carrying out of orders as they are expected to have performed it (Campbell et al. , 2006). But with a fast-paced work in wards and special areas, nurses are more often on bedside care rather than facing the computer resulting in delayed notification of new orders, or worse non-information at all (Campbell et al. , 2006). Also, the time that elapsed from the physician seeing the patient and encoding the order may take precious moments that may consist of changes in the status of the patient’s condition (Campbell et al. , 2006). This results in untimely orders received by nurses, who are the implementers of such encoded orders. Communication also involves more than transferring information. More importantly, it is about evaluating the person’s reception and understanding of the situation and the willingness to intervene on that information through feedbacks (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). With face-to-face conversations by doctors and nurses, timely feedbacks are given by each resulting to more appropriate interventions (Campbell et al. , 2006). With CPOE, the lessened feedback leads to orders missed, diagnostic tests delayed, and medications not given at all because timely feedbacks have not been exchanged (Ash, Berg, Coiera, 2004). This disregard for interpersonal communications by CPOE can be troublesome for the clinical work. With a reduction in face-to-face communications, errors due to miscommunications, delayed actions, and fewer team-wide discussions may result (Campbell et al. , 2006). CONCLUSION With the complexity and imperfections of human operations, even emerging technologies with good intentions are expected to have, in one way or the other, unintended consequences. In the light of CPOE’s, though intentions are directed towards improving safety and quality of health care, some effects result as this new technology is embraced by healthcare practice that has long survived without the use of such. As it affects aspects of healthcare, nurses, who implement most of the orders entered by doctors through CPOE’s, are also affected. As CPOE disrupts the conventional health care workflow, it also changes the flexible roles of nurses and care providers in terms of clinical work and responsibilities. In the light of CPOE changing interpersonal communication practices, the traditional face-to-face interactions are lessened thereby leading to poor coordination among nurses and physicians and other ancillary care providers. Thus, with the promise benefits of CPOE, a clear review of the already known and possible unintended consequences to health and nursing care must be made if CPOE is to be imposed in health settings. By doing so, preparations for these effects may be made leading to a more enjoyment of CPOE good effects rather than suffering from its adverse unintended consequences. References Ash, J. S. , Berg, M. , Coiera, E. (2004). Some unintended consequences of information technology in health care: The nature of patient care information system-related errors. Journal of the American Medical Infromatics Association, 11, 104-112. Campbell, E. M. , Sittig, D. F. , Ash, J. S. , Guappone, K. P. , Dykstra, R. H. (2006). Types of unintended consequences related to Computerized Provider Order Entry. Journal of the American Medical Infromatics Association, 13 (5), 547-556. Coyne, C. J. (2008). Unintended consequences. In: Fortier, J. (Ed. ), Key concepts in free markets: Executive summaries in the History and theory of free market economics, 115-138. Vancouver, BC: The Fraser Institute. Kuperman, G. J. Gibson, R. F. (2003). Computer physician order entry: Benefits, costs, and issues. Annals of Internal Medicine, 139, 31-39. Merton K. (1936). The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action. American Sociological Review, 1, 894-904. MSN Encarta (2008). Side effect. Retrieved October 23, 2008, from http://encarta. msn. com/dictionary_/side%2520effects. html Spratto, G. R. Woods, A. L. (2008). PDR Nurse’s Drug Handbook, vii-xvii. United States: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Reflective Writing And Theories Of Reflection Education Essay

Reflective Writing And Theories Of Reflection Education Essay There are several types of reflection. As mentioned by Taylor, All types of reflection are important and a combination of these may be used to make sense of practise and to bring changes. Technical Reflection is generally used to look at clinical practices and procedures along with the scientific knowledge. However, values play no part in this. Practical Reflection on the other hand judges human experiences and assumptions. It also develops common values in-line with organizational values. Emancipatory (Critical) Reflection involves critiques of the assumptions on which our social, political and cultural beliefs are based with the prospect of changing them. Reflective Practice is concept developed by Donald Schon. There are also several models of reflection used to draw lessons out of experiences. In 1978 Argyris and Schon established the idea of single loop and double loop learning. In the former concept the organization or the individual follows the current techniques or strategies even after corrections are made to the current errors. However, the late concept involves modification of techniques and strategies. Later in 1984 Schon coined the concepts of Reflection in Action (RIA) and Reflection on Action (ROA). RIA is a concept when the practitioner is faced with an issue he makes a decision based on his feeling and prior experiences. On the other hand, Reflection on Action is an idea where the practitioner analyzes the experience after it is over. Personally, I have experienced both the concepts during several situations in life knowingly or unknowingly. Specially, during our ALE1, we were given an opportunity to reflect on ou r performance after every task. This depicted our practical implementation of Reflection on Action. By implementing the learning from previous task in the later task we have also exercised the concept of Reflection in Action. To mention an example, in the first task we were given a sheet of instructions which were tricky. However, we went to perform the task without analysing the rules and we failed to finish the task within the given time. After the reflection session, when we went on to perform the second task, we made it a point to read and understand the rules carefully. Kolbs Experiential Learning Cycle is another great contribution to this concept. This learning cycle has four stages (Concrete Experience, Reflective, Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation Observation) and the reflection takes place after the situation has occurred. In the first stage the practitioner concentrates on something that they have done and later reflects and explores the new ideas to better perform the task. In the third stage he forms new ideas and experiments them in the fourth stage. This loop is continued from one task to another. is another process where the practitioner not only describes the situation but analyses it. Unlike the other models it also has an action plan stage where the reflector mentions the actions that he would like to change if the same situation occurs. Jhons model of Reflection on the other hand involves sharing the experiences with a colleague. It has two stages Looking in on ones thoughts and emotions and Looking Out at the situation experienced. Reflection on my Personal Development : Initially, when we were given learning logs for our ALE, I didnt know the importance and advantages of it unless we started writing the reflective log after every task. After learning that this is one of the best and easy ways to change oneself, I have stated using the reflective writing tool every time I wanted to develop the way I work and think. During our ALE we have used several tools to better understand ourselves. During our feedback session, we were asked to use Johari Window to know our intern-personal relationships and communication. Though I was happy about the adjectives mentioned in the public session, the adjectives mentioned in the Blind Spots section were quite surprising to me. The blind spots for me were complex and proud. When I tried to find the reasons from my colleagues for the same, I was told that though I am a friendly, work-oriented person, I sometimes get too much into detail in a group task or assignment and its difficult for them to understand me. This may be because though I am clear about the topic, I sometimes find it difficult to explain which confuses the other people. Also, the feedback I generally receive from most of the people after few days of being with me is that I thought that you are a very proud person when I initially met you. The reason for this is, when I meet new people or enter a new environment, I take some time to get acquainted and unless I know them, I dont initiate a conversation with people. Though this perception of them changes at a later stage, it gives a negative vibe to people in the initial stage. Also, according to Belbin Self-Perception Inventory, the team roles I have similarity towards are completer and specialist. These two roles reflect my working style rightly. I always try to learn more and specialize in the subject area of my interest. Also, because I am good at analysing and pay a good attention to details, I am always given the responsibility of doing the last minute polishing and editing in our group assignments. However, there are also negative sides to these team roles which I am aware of and are part of my development plan. As a specialist though I learn in-depth about the subject of my interest, I neglect other subjects which I am not interested in. Also, the blind spot complex that I have mentioned earlier can be related to the weakness of the completer. As a completer thought I try to get the every detail of the report correct, I sometimes take the perfectionism to the extremes. According to Honey and Mumfords Learning Styles, I am a Reflector. As a reflector I like to learn from activities that let me think, watch and review. However, I find is difficult to concentrate on a lecture unless I find it interesting. This can be linked to my weakness as a Specialist. According to the MBTI my personality type is ISFP (Introversion, Sensing, Feeling, and Perceiving). This shows that I am a peoples person who is friendly and dislike conflicts. But, I like to have my own space. The MBTI and IDAP grid show me on the People Caring part of the grid. This is little contradicting. Though I am comfortable working in a team, I prefer to work on my own. I find it difficult to convey a message as I feel that contradicting with others views may create problems personally. As part of the self-development, I would like to develop a skill to converse a message in a soft way and would like to learn to maintain a professional relationship with other people in team as most of the work in organization is team based. Also, would like to develop my networking skills. Reflection on my managerial skills: According to Reynolds Reflection is a management tool for problem solving. Also, the following quote depicts the importance of management in an organization. Make your top managers rich and they will make you rich. Robert H. Johnson A question that many people ask is why we should we study management theories? Personal traits, values, beliefs and attitudes are the core personal competencies which may enhance or weaken ones ability to manage others. Also, it is the behaviour and talent of the individual that has major influence on the performance of the company. Hence, an understanding of managerial theories is very helpful for someone who aspires to be a manager as most rational decisions are based on theories. An extensive study of the theories available is also very helpful for a manager in order to better manage their team as theories provide info about how to behave and help change the behaviour. Theories also provide a common framework and idea about practices. Over a period of time the purpose of work and the way the work is conducted is changing in the organization. The management styles have to be changed accordingly. Minor says that the more that is known about organization and their methods of operation, the better the chances of dealing effectively with them. Understanding may be more advanced than prediction, but both provide the opportunity to influence or to manage the future. Theory provides a sound basis for action. Hence, an understanding of management theories and knowledge about organization are important for a manager to better perform their tasks. Mullin in his book, Management and Organisational Behaviour has followed a frame work of four main approaches to explain the Management Theory. The Classical Approach which emphasises on the purpose and formal hierarchy of management. The classical writers concentrated on improving the operational efficient in an organization. Brench, a classical writer also provided a concept of practical approach to organization structure based on tried general principles as opposed to the concentration on specific cases. Evaluation: The classical writers are criticised for not taking the personality factors into consideration and for creating an organisation structure in which people exercise a limited control. Also, providing a set of principles to perform management duties has been subjected to criticism. Two Major sub-groups of classical approach are : Scientific Management: This concept was developed by Taylor who was a believer in the Rational-economic needs concept of motivation. The emphasis of this was on obtaining increased productivity from individual workers through the technical structuring of the work and providing monetary incentives as a motivator for higher levels of output. Though this concept has given a way to management thinking and the development of organizational behaviour, it was widely criticised by workers. Bureaucracy: This concept was defined by Weber. He didnt define the concept of Bureaucracy. However, he attempted to identify the characteristics of this type of organizations. He emphasised on the importance of administration based on expertise and discipline. In this concept, the tasks of the organization are allocated as official duties among the various positions. There is an implied clear cut division of labour and a high level of specialization. Evaluation: Over-emphasis on rules and procedures becomes more important in its own right than as a means to the end. Argyris says that bureaucracies restrict the psychological growth of the individual and cause feeling of failure. The growth of bureaucracy has evolved through the increasing size and complexity of organisations and associated demand for effective administration. This theory is founded on a formal, clearly defined and hierarchical structure. However, with rapid changes in the external environment, empowerment and greater attention to meeting the needs of customers, there is an increasing need to organise for flexibility. The Human Relations Approach: While the main emphasis of classic writers was on structure and formal organisation, the emphasis was shifted to social factors at work and the behaviour of employees at work i.e. human relations during the 1920s. The turning point in the development of the human relations movement came with the famous Hawthorne experiment at the Western Electric Company in America. During the experiment a better work environment and a concern for workers complaints has increased the productivity. Evaluation: This theory was also subjected to severe criticism. One of the criticisms is the lack of scientific approach. The Hawthorne experiment was criticised on methodology and on failure of the investigators to take sufficient account of environmental factors. After all the criticisms, the experiment did generate new ideas concerning the importance of work groups and leadership, communications, output restrictions, motivation and job design. Systems Approach: With this theory attention has been focused on the organization as systems with a number of interrelated sub-systems. This approach tries to bring together both classical and human approaches. Attention is focused on the total work organization; inter relationships of structure and range of variables within the organization. This encourages the managers to view the organization as separate parts and as a whole company as part of the large environment. The Contingency Approach: In contrast to both classical and human relations approach, this approach showed renewed concern with the importance of structure as a significant influence on organizational performance. The Contingency Approach that can be seen as the extension of system approach highlights possible means of differentiating among alternative forms of organizational structures and systems of management. This approach implies that organisation theory should not seek to suggest one best way to structure or manage organisations but should provide insights into the situational and contextual factors which influence the management decisions. DUCAMUS Leadership Development was set up by Chris Rigby in June 2007 to plug gaps identified in many leadership development programmes during his research. As part of this Leadership Intervention, they use Downstream 9+1 model to support the critical reflection skills. John adairs action-centred leadership model Generally represented by three overlapping cycles, Adairs three circle model is about balancing and managing Team, Task and Individual. Three core responsibilities in this model are: Achieving the task, Managing the team and Managing individuals. It helps to improve the quality of work, morale and productivity. Theory U is another change management method targeting leadership as process of inner knowing and social innovation developed by Otto Scharmer and originally based on a process known as the U-Process. It offers both theoretical perspective and Practical technology. As a theoretical view, it suggests that the way in which we attend to a situation determines how a situation unfolds. Practically, it provides a set of principles and practices for collectively creating the future that wants to emerge. It involves sensing and presence. There are seven stages in this theory and they are Suspending, Redirecting, Letting Go, Letting Come, Crystallizing, Prototyping and Institutionalizing. Moving down the left-hand side of the U is about opening up and dealing with the resistance of thought, emotion, and will; moving up the right-hand side is about intentionally reintegrating the intelligence of the head, the heart, and the hand in the context of practical applications. An understanding of these theories not only helped me learn how the management theory is formed and changed over a period of time, it also helped me understand the effects of these changes on organizational working styles. Also, an understanding what happened in the past prepares me for changes that may occur in the future. It also gave me an idea about the skills that I need to develop to better manage others. I lack skills like creativity and inter-personal effectiveness which are very important to manage others. Career Development Model Career management involves the matching of individual career plans with organization needs and the implementation of activities to accomplish these joint objectives. Individual Career Development is another constructive model that helps in planning the career through self-analysis. It has several stages such as Life Planning, Career Interests, Goal Planning and Development of abilities and skills. Though I always knew which field I want to get into and what I want to do in future, I never had a logical reason for my selection. This tool has helped me to analyze my interests, strengths and weaknesses and chose a career plan for myself. This development plan consists of several questionnaires about my Career Planning Values, My interests, skills, knowledge and a Priority Grid to prioritize my choices. After analyzing my inputs, I have decided a career of my interest. I always aspired to be a HR practitioner. After analysing my skills, I realized that I like Strategic Orientation and Team Orientation skills that are required to be a HR Practitioner. I will mention a development plan at a later stage along with the action plan that I am going to follow these skills. In a team environment, I can also use this model to know more about my team members career choices. Conclusion: I would like to conclude it by saying that this whole experience of reflective writing was very pleasant and helpful in knowing me with a logical reasoning and my skills. It provided me with a tool that I can use life-long to develop myself. Few of my key learnings from this exercise are : * A better understanding of myself * Understanding of several tools to know myself and people around me * A simple but effective Career Planning Model that I can use to know me and people around me Development Plan Skill | Action Plan | Effective communication | I have already started a lot articles about effective communication skills and started self practicing when I am along. However, in future Il try to speak in public whenever I get a chance. | Adaptability | I will try to be little open and go introduce myself to other people without thinking about what they might think as that is the thought that stops me from talking with strangers. | Inter-personal effectiveness | I have already improved a lot on this skill. However, I am not perfect yet. In future I am planning to take advice from tutors on how to develop this skill as it is very important for me in my desired profession. | Team Orientation | Though I prefer to work alone, these days I have started participating actively in the team activities and have already received positive feedback about the same from my friends. However, I am still putting in efforts to better perform. | Strategic Orientation | I am using the technique of writing an idea on a sheet of paper and think of several strategies to about it to develop my strategic skills. However, I am not being quite successful on this task. However, my efforts are still on to develop this skill | Creativity | This is one skill I lack completely. I can think logically and make appropriate decisions. However, lack of creativity is still my negative and I am quite not sure about developing this skill. |